Understanding Current

By R.W. Hurst, Editor

Current is the flow of electric charge in circuits, defined by amperage, driven by voltage, limited by resistance, described by Ohm’s law, and fundamental to AC/DC power systems, loads, conductors, and electronic components.

 

What Is Current?

Current is charge flow in a circuit, measured in amperes and governed by voltage and resistance.

✅ Measured in amperes; sensed with ammeters and shunts

✅ Defined by Ohm’s law: I = V/R in linear resistive circuits

✅ AC alternates; DC is steady; sets power transfer P = V*I

 

Current is best described as a flow of charge or that the charge is moving. Electrons in motion make up an electric current. This electric current is usually referred to as “current” or “current flow,” no matter how many electrons are moving. Current is a measurement of a rate at which a charge flows through some region of space or a conductor. The moving charges are the free electrons found in conductors, such as copper, silver, aluminum, and gold. The term “free electron” describes a condition in some atoms where the outer electrons are loosely bound to their parent atom. These loosely bound electrons can be easily motivated to move in a given direction when an external source, such as a battery, is applied to the circuit. These electrons are attracted to the positive terminal of the battery, while the negative terminal is the source of the electrons. The greater amount of charge moving through the conductor in a given amount of time translates into a current. For a concise overview of how moving charges create practical circuits, see this guide to current electricity for additional context.


 

The System International unit for current is the Ampere (A), where


 

That is, 1 ampere (A) of current is equivalent to 1 coulomb (C) of charge passing through a conductor in 1 second(s). One coulomb of charge equals 6.28 billion billion electrons. The symbol used to indicate current in formulas or on schematics is the capital letter “I.” To explore the formal definition, standards, and measurement practices, consult this explanation of the ampere for deeper detail.

When current flow is one direction, it is called direct current (DC). Later in the text, we will discuss the form of current that periodically oscillates back and forth within the circuit. The present discussion will only be concerned with the use of direct current. If you are working with batteries or electronic devices, you will encounter direct current (DC) in most basic circuits.

The velocity of the charge is actually an average velocity and is called drift velocity. To understand the idea of drift velocity, think of a conductor in which the charge carriers are free electrons. These electrons are always in a state of random motion similar to that of gas molecules. When a voltage is applied across the conductor, an electromotive force creates an electric field within the conductor and a current is established. The electrons do not move in a straight direction but undergo repeated collisions with other nearby atoms. These collisions usually knock other free electrons from their atoms, and these electrons move on toward the positive end of the conductor with an average velocity called the drift velocity, which is relatively a slow speed. To understand the nearly instantaneous speed of the effect of the current, it is helpful to visualize a long tube filled with steel balls as shown in Figure 10-37. It can be seen that a ball introduced in one end of the tube, which represents the conductor, will immediately cause a ball to be emitted at the opposite end of the tube. Thus, electric current can be viewed as instantaneous, even though it is the result of a relatively slow drift of electrons. For foundational concepts that connect drift velocity with circuit behavior, review this basic electricity primer to reinforce the fundamentals.

Current is also a physical quantity that can be measured and expressed numerically in amperes. Electric current can be compared to the flow of water in a pipe. It is measureda at the rate in which a charge flows past a certain point on a circuit. Current in a circuit can be measured if the quantity of charge "Q" passing through a cross section of a wire in a time "t" (time) can be measured. The current is simply the ratio of the quantity of charge and time. Understanding current and charge flow also clarifies how circuits deliver electrical energy to perform useful work.

 


 

Electrical current is essentially an electric charge in motion. It can take either the form of a sudden discharge of static electricity, such as a lightning bolt or a spark between your finger and a ground light switch plate. More commonly, though, when we speak of current, we mean the more controlled form of electricity from generators, batteries, solar cells or fuel cells.  A helpful overview of static, current, and related phenomena is available in this summary of electricity types for quick reference.

We can think of the flow of electrons in a wire as the flow of water in a pipe, except in this case, the pipe of water is always full. If the valve on the pipe is opened at one end to let water into the pipe, one doesn't have to wait for that water to make its way all the way to the other end of the pipe. We get water out the other end almost instantaneously because the incoming water pushes the water that's already in the pipe toward the end. This is what happens in the case of electrical current in a wire. The conduction electrons are already present in the wire; we just need to start pushing electrons in one end, and they start flowing at the other end instantly. In household power systems, that push on conduction electrons alternates in direction as alternating current (AC) drives the flow with a time-varying voltage.

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Current Formula

Current is rate of flow of negatively-charged particles, called electrons, through a predetermined cross-sectional area in a conductor.

 Essentially, flow of electrons in an electric circuit leads to the establishment of current.

q = relatively charged electrons (C)

t = Time

Amp = C/sec

Often measured in milliamps, mA

 

 

 

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Green Electricity

Green electricity integrates renewable energy sources such as solar PV, wind turbines, and hydropower into smart grids, improving power quality, decarbonization, efficiency, and reliability for industrial loads and utility-scale networks.

 

What is green electricity?

Green electricity is renewable-source power via smart grids to cut emissions and enhance system efficiency.

✅ Integrates PV, wind, hydro with power electronics and converters

✅ Enhances grid stability via inverters, FACTS, and smart protection

✅ Reduces CO2, improves efficiency, supports microgrids and storage

 

Green electricity is a term describing what is thought to be environmentally friendly sources of electricity. Typically, this refers to renewable and non-polluting energy power sources. For a broader perspective on how different technologies contribute, see this overview of sources of electricity across modern grids.

Green electricity includes natural energetic processes which can be harnessed with little pollution. Anaerobic digestion, geothermal power, wind power, small-scale hydropower, solar power, biomass power, tidal power and wave power fall under such a category. Some versions may also include power derived from the incineration of waste. Comparisons with other clean options are summarized in this guide to alternative electricity solutions used worldwide.

 

Energies Wind Electricity 
The winds that blow across the UK can be harnessed by turbines to provide Green electricity. Wind turbines sited in suitable locations already provide a small, but growing percentage of the UK's electricity, and are used successfully all around the world. In fact wind power is the world's fastest growing energy source! Wind turbine technology has greatly improved over the last ten years, making wind turbines quieter and more efficient so that electricity generated from the wind is now often competitive with traditional coal-fired and nuclear power stations. Wind turbines are also beginning to be built at sea — in the future much of our electricity could come from these offshore windfarms. Understanding how turbines integrate into national systems is covered in this primer on electricity generation methods and planning.

 

Solar Electricity
Many people believe that we don't get much solar Green electricity here in the UK. In fact solar power is already being used to provide essential power for many types of equipment being used in both remote and urban areas across the country. A solar photovoltaic (PV) module works by converting sunlight directly into electricity (even on cloudy days) using semiconductor technology. The vast majority of solar modules available today use "waste" silicon from the computer chip industry as the semiconductor material. They can be integrated into buildings and even made into roof tiles virtually indistinguishable from normal tiles. 
Solar Electricity can also be used to heat water directly using specially designed collectors. Even in winter a useful amount of hot water can be produced from roof top collectors. A third way to use solar energy is simply to design buildings to make maximum use of the sun. Using this so-called 'passive solar' approach, much of the energy that we currently use for heating, lighting and air conditioning can be saved. Homeowners can explore practical steps to generate electricity with rooftop PV and storage.

 

Hydro Electricity
Water turbines have been used to provide Green electricity for over 100 years and presently provide over 1% of the UK's electricity. Although most of the possible sites for large hydropower stations in the UK have already been developed, there is a large potential for smaller schemes. These can either use a small dam or work as a 'run of the river' system which has a minimal impact on the local environment. Design considerations for small schemes are outlined in this resource on water electricity systems for communities.

 

Wave Electricity
Many different devices have been designed over the years to try and capture some of this huge energy resource — the latest one has recently started generating Green electricity on the isle of Islay, off the West Coast of Scotland. In this machine waves hitting the shore are channelled into a large tube to power a specially designed turbine. With the proper support, wave power could provide a significant proportion of the UK's electricity needs in the future.

 

Tidal Electricity
Tidal power has been used in Britain for over a thousand years — at the time of the Doomsday book over 5,000 tide powered mills were recorded. Unlike other Green electricity renewable energy sources, which depend on the weather, tidal power is as predictable as the tides themselves. One way to capture tidal energy is to build a barrage across an estuary, storing water behind it as the tide rises and then releasing the stored water through turbines at low tide. Several sites around the UK could be suitable for this type of tidal system, the largest being the Severn Estuary. Another way is to use 'marine current turbines', which work like underwater wind turbines, harnessing tidal currents instead of the winds.

 

Geothermal Electricity
Geothermal energy comes from hot rocks deep underground. In some parts of the world steam comes to the surface and can be used to run steam turbines to produce Green electricity directly. In other places water can be pumped down and heated by the rocks to make steam. Geothermal energy can also be used to provide hot water and heating for buildings. Case studies of enhanced systems are available in this overview of geothermal electricity projects worldwide.

 

Biomass Electricity
Either agricultural wastes or specially grown plants can be used as a fuel to run small Green electricity power stations. As plants grow they absorb carbon dioxide (the main gas responsible for climate change) which is then released when the plants are burnt. So using biomass does not add any extra carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Specially grown 'energy crops' provide not only an environmentally sound source of electricity, but also an important new opportunity for farmers. Analyses of supply chains and grid impacts appear in this review of electricity production from biomass and other renewables.

 

Landfill gas Converted to Electricity
As rubbish decomposes in the landfill sites where our household waste is dumped, it gives off methane gas. This gas can be captured and burnt in a gas turbine to produce an attractive Green electricity tariff. Burning the gas does give off carbon dioxide but since methane, which is emitted from the landfill site, is in fact a much more powerful greenhouse gas it is better to burn it than to allow the methane to escape into the atmosphere. There are already many landfill gas systems operating in the UK.

 

Waste Incineration Electricity
The UK generates an enormous amount of waste, and space at landfill sites is quickly running out. The best solution would be to recycle as much of the waste as possible, but instead incinerators are being constructed to burn the waste. In some cases the energy is being used to generate green electricity. However many environmentalists are still concerned about the emission of harmful dioxins and also about the loss of a valuable resources that could have been recycled. You can read about Greenpeace's views on incineration.

 

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Electricity Production

Electricity production converts primary energy into power via thermal, hydro, wind, and solar systems, optimizing efficiency, capacity factor, grid stability, transmission reliability, and emissions through turbines, generators, inverters, and advanced SCADA control.

 

What Is Electricity Production?

Electricity production converts energy to electric power, prioritizing efficiency, safety, and grid reliability.

✅ Conversion via turbines, generators, inverters, and transformers

✅ Control with SCADA, protective relays, and load-frequency regulation

✅ Optimization of efficiency, capacity factor, and emissions

 

Electricity Production continues to grow around the world, from a variety of energy power sources. In terms of world electricity generation, the US Department of Energy predicts advances strongly from 2004 to 2030. Global production increases by 2.4 percent per year over the projection period, from 16,424 billion kilowatthours in 2004 to 30,364 billion kilowatthours in 2030. Much of the growth in electric power demand is projected for nations outside the OECD. Although the non-OECD nations consumed 26 percent less electricity than the OECD nations in 2004, total generation in the non-OECD region in 2030 is projected to exceed generation in the OECD by 30 per cent. For context, the International Energy Outlook provides a concise overview of electricity generation trends worldwide today.

Total electricity demand in the non-OECD nations is expected to grow from 2004 to 2030 at an annual rate that is nearly triple the rate of growth for electricity demand in the OECD. The difference reflects the relative maturity of electricity infrastructure in the more developed OECD region, as well as the expectation that populations in the OECD countries generally will grow slowly or decline over the next 25 years. In addition, fast-paced growth in the developing non-OECD economies translates to rising standards of living and robust growth in consumer demand for lighting and appliances. Total electricity generation in the non-OECD region increases by an average of 3.5 percent per year in the IEO2007 reference case, as compared with a projected annual growth rate for OECD electricity generation that averages 1.3 per cent per year from 2004 to 2030. Among the energy end-use sectors, the most rapid growth in total world demand for electricity is projected for the buildings (residential and commercial) sectors.

Understanding the diversity of sources of electricity helps explain regional growth patterns in demand.

In Power plants, electricity Production involves the generation or creation of electric power, using rotating turbines attached to an energy generator. This mechanical manufacturing of electricity produces most commercially available electricity. Turbines are driven by a fluid which acts as an intermediate energy carrier. The fluids typically used are:

For readers new to plant design, this primer on how electricity is generated clarifies the roles of turbines, generators, and working fluids.

  • steam - Water is boiled by nuclear fission or the burning of fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, or petroleum). Some newer plants use the sun as the heat source: solar parabolic troughs and solar power towers concentrate sunlight to heat a heat transfer fluid, which is then used to produce steam. Another renewable source of heat used to drive a turbine is Geothermal power. Either steam under pressure emerges from the ground and drives a turbine or hot water evaporates a low boiling liquid to create vapour to drive a turbine.
  • water - Turbine blades are acted upon by flowing water, produced by hydroelectric dams or tidal forces,
  • wind - Most wind turbines generate electricity from naturally occurring wind. Solar updraft towers use wind that is artificially produced inside the chimney by heating it with sunlight.
  • hot gases - Turbines are driven directly by gases produced by the combustion of natural gas or oil. Combined cycle gas turbine plants are driven by both steam and gas. They generate power by burning natural gas in a gas turbine and use residual heat to generate additional electricity generation from steam. These plants offer efficiencies of up to 60%.

Hydropower and tidal technologies illustrate how water-based electricity remains a cornerstone in many regions.

Various other technologies have been studied and developed for power generation. Solid-state generation (without moving parts) is of particular interest in portable applications. This area is largely dominated by thermoelectric (TE) devices, though thermionic (TI) and thermophotovoltaic (TPV) systems have been developed as well. Typically, TE devices are used at lower temperatures than TI and TPV systems. Piezoelectric devices are used for power generation from mechanical strain, particularly in power harvesting. Betavoltaics are another type of solid-state power generator which produces electricity from radioactive decay. Beyond conventional turbines, a range of alternative electricity options are being explored for niche and distributed applications.

Fluid-based magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) electricity generation has been studied as a method for extracting electrical power from nuclear reactors and also from more conventional fuel combustion systems. These advanced concepts broaden our understanding of how we generate electricity under extreme conditions.

Electrochemical is also important in portable and mobile applications. Currently, most electrochemical power comes from closed electrochemical cells ("batteries"), which are arguably utilized more as storage systems than generation systems, but open electrochemical systems, known as fuel cells, have been undergoing a great deal of research and development in the last few years. Fuel cells can be used to extract power either from natural fuels or from synthesized fuels (mainly electrolytic hydrogen) and so can be viewed as either generation systems or storage systems depending on their use. In many systems the electricity generator ultimately interfaces with inverters and controls for grid integration.

 

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Norton's Theorem

Norton’s Theorem simplifies electrical circuit analysis by reducing any complex linear network to an equivalent current source in parallel with a resistor, enabling easier calculation of load current, evaluation of resistance, and solving practical problems.

 

What is Norton’s Theorem?

Norton’s Theorem states that any linear electrical network with sources and resistances can be reduced to an equivalent current source in parallel with a single resistor.

✅ Represents complex circuits as a simple current source and resistor

✅ Simplifies load current and resistance calculations

✅ Enhances circuit analysis for power systems and electronics

 

Understanding Norton's Theorem

Norton's Theorem is a foundational principle in electrical engineering, used to simplify the analysis of linear electronic circuits. This theorem, often taught alongside Thevenin's Theorem, provides a practical method for reducing complex circuits into a manageable form. The main insight of Norton's Theorem is that any two-terminal linear circuit, regardless of its internal complexity, can be represented by an ideal current source in parallel with a single resistor. This transformation does not alter external circuit behavior, making calculations and predictions about circuit performance far more straightforward. To fully grasp circuit simplification methods like Norton’s Theorem, it helps to start with a foundation in basic electricity.

Norton’s Theorem states that any linear electrical network can be simplified into a Norton equivalent circuit, making analysis more manageable. This representation is similar to an equivalent circuit consisting of a single current source and parallel resistance, allowing engineers to determine load behavior with ease. By calculating the total resistance of the network and combining it with the Norton current, complex problems become straightforward, enabling accurate predictions of circuit performance in both educational and real-world applications.

 

How Norton's Theorem Works

To use Norton's Theorem, engineers follow a step-by-step process:

  1. Identify the portion of the circuit to simplify: Usually, this means the part of the circuit as seen from a pair of terminals (often where a load is connected).

  2. Find the Norton current (IN): This is the current that would flow through a short circuit placed across the two terminals. It's calculated by removing the load resistor and finding the resulting current between the open terminals.

  3. Calculate the Norton resistance (RN): All independent voltage and current sources are deactivated (voltage sources are shorted, current sources are open-circuited), and the resistance seen from the open terminals is measured.

  4. Draw the Norton equivalent: Place the calculated current source (IN) in parallel with the calculated resistor (RN) between the terminals in question.

  5. Reconnect the load resistor: The circuit is now simplified, and analysis (such as calculating load current or voltage) is far easier.

Calculating Norton resistance often relies on principles such as Ohm’s Law and electrical resistance.

 

Why Use Norton's Theorem?

Complex electrical networks often contain multiple sources, resistors, and other components. Calculating the current or voltage across a particular element can be difficult without simplification. Norton's Theorem allows engineers to:

  • Save time: By reducing a circuit to source and resistance values, repeated calculations for different load conditions become much faster.

  • Enhance understanding: Seeing a circuit as a source and parallel resistor clarifies key behaviors, such as maximum power transfer.

  • Test different scenarios: Engineers can quickly swap different load values and immediately see the effect without having to recalculate the entire network each time.

Understanding how current behaves in different networks connects directly to the study of direct current and alternating current.

 

Comparison to Thevenin’s Theorem

Norton's Theorem is closely related to Thevenin's Theorem. Thevenin's approach uses a voltage source in series with a resistor, while Norton's uses a current source in parallel with a resistor. The two equivalents can be converted mathematically:

  • Thevenin equivalent resistance (RTH) = Norton equivalent resistance (RN)
  • Norton current (IN) = Thevenin voltage (VTH) divided by Thevenin resistance (RTH)
  • Thevenin voltage (VTH) = Norton current (IN) times resistance (RN)

Engineers applying Norton’s Theorem also draw on related concepts such as equivalent resistance and impedance to analyze circuits accurately.

 

Real-World Example

Suppose you need to know the current flowing through a sensor in a larger industrial power distribution board. The network supplying the sensor includes many resistors, switches, and sources. Applying Norton's Theorem, you can remove the sensor and find:

  1. The short-circuit current across its terminals (Norton current)
  2. The combined resistance left in the circuit (Norton resistance)

Once you reconnect the sensor and know its resistance, you can easily analyze how much current it will receive, or how it will affect circuit performance under different conditions.

For a deeper understanding, exploring electricity and magnetism reveals how fundamental laws, such as Faraday’s Law and Ampere’s Law, support the theory behind circuit transformations.

 

Applications of Norton's Theorem

  • Power system analysis: Used by utility engineers to study how changes in distribution, like maintenance or faults, impact circuit behavior.

  • Electronic device design: Common in transistors, op-amps, and other components to simplify input and output circuit analysis.

  • Fault diagnosis and protection: Helps quickly estimate fault currents for setting up protective devices in grids.

  • Education: Essential in electrical engineering curricula to develop problem-solving skills.

 

Limitations of Norton's Theorem

While powerful, Norton's Theorem is limited to linear circuits and cannot be directly applied to circuits with non-linear components (such as diodes or transistors in their non-linear regions). Additionally, it is only applicable between two terminals of a network; for systems with more terminals, additional techniques are required.

Norton's Theorem remains a valuable tool for engineers and students, offering clarity and efficiency in analyzing complex circuits. By transforming intricate arrangements into simple source-resistor pairs, it enables faster design iterations, troubleshooting, and optimized system performance. Whether you're analyzing a power distribution panel or designing integrated circuits, understanding and applying Norton's Theorem is an essential skill in the electrical field.

 

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Electromagnetic Induction

Electromagnetic induction is the process of generating electric current by changing a magnetic field, forming the basis for transformers, generators, and electric motors in power generation and energy conversion systems.

 

What is Electromagnetic Induction?

Electromagnetic induction is a fascinating and vital concept shaping how we generate, transfer, and utilize electricity.

✅ Process where a changing magnetic field induces an electric current in a conductor

✅ Fundamental principle behind transformers, generators, and electric motors

✅ Essential for modern power generation, transmission, and energy conversion

 

Its underlying principles, Faraday's Law and Lenz's Law, explain the phenomena occurring when magnetic fields interact with conductors. At the same time, its various applications, such as electric generators, transformers, induction heating, and wireless charging, have revolutionized our daily lives. As we continue to explore and understand this intricacy, we can look forward to even more innovations and advancements in electricity and magnetism. Understanding Faraday's Law is essential to grasp how changing magnetic fields generate electricity through electromagnetic induction.

 


 

Fundamental Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday's Law of electromagnetic induction, invented by Michael Faraday, is a key principle that states that the induced EMF in a coil is proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux (dφ/dt) passing through the coil. The more rapidly the magnetic field changes, the higher the amount of voltage induced will be. This relationship between electricity and magnetism laid the foundation for the development of various electrical devices and systems. The relationship between electricity and magnetism forms the foundation of generators, transformers, and other key electrical systems.

Lenz's Law, another crucial principle, explains the direction of the induced current. It states that the induced current will always flow in a direction that opposes the change in magnetic flux, acting as a stabilizing electromotive force. By combining Faraday's and Lenz's Law, we can better understand how it operates in real-world applications. For a deeper understanding of how voltage is produced in coils, explore the principles of Lenz's Law.

 

Core Applications: Generators and Transformers

One notable application is the electrical generator, which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. In a typical generator, a coil of wire rotates within a magnetic field, creating a changing magnetic flux. This change induces a voltage and current in the coil, generating electricity. Generators are commonly used in power plants, automobiles, and other devices requiring a continuous electrical supply. A three-phase transformer uses electromagnetic induction to efficiently transfer power between circuits at different voltages.

Another critical application is the transformer, which transfers electrical energy between circuits with different voltages. Transformers consist of two induction coils wrapped around a shared magnetic core. When an alternating current flows through the primary coil, it creates a magnetic field that induces a voltage in the secondary coil. By adjusting the number of turns in the coils, transformers can step up or down the voltage as needed for specific electrical systems.

 

Special Phenomena: Eddy Currents, Mutual Inductance, and Self-Inductance

Eddy currents are an intriguing aspect of electromagnetic induction. These currents form when a magnetic field changes, causing swirling, closed loops of electric current within a conductor. Eddy currents generate heat and can lead to energy losses in electrical systems, but they also have practical applications, such as in metal detectors and induction heating. Devices that use electromagnetic induction, such as electric motors, rely on core principles of inductance to regulate energy transfer.

Two critical aspects of electromagnetic induction are mutual inductance and self-inductance. Mutual inductance occurs when the current in one coil induces a voltage in a nearby coil due to their shared magnetic field. Self-inductance refers to a coil's ability to induce a voltage within itself when the current flowing through it changes. Understanding these concepts is crucial for designing and analyzing complex electrical circuits and systems.

 

Demonstrating the Principle: Coil and Magnet Interaction

In many cases, it involves the interaction of a coil and a magnet, either a permanent magnet or an electromagnet. A bar magnet, for example, may be moved near a coil, or the coil may be moved about the magnet. This motion changes the magnetic field and induces a voltage in the coil, demonstrating the dynamic relationship between electricity and magnetism. Learning the basics of electrical resistance helps explain how eddy currents generate heat in conductive materials.

 

Modern Impact and Emerging Technologies

It has an immense impact on modern life, from generating electricity in power plants to operating devices like transformers, electric motors, and wireless chargers. The principles of Faraday's Law and Lenz's Law help explain the complex phenomena that occur when magnetic fields interact with conductors. By harnessing these principles, scientists and engineers have created various practical applications that have revolutionized our daily lives.

Electromagnetic induction demonstrates the fundamental relationship between electricity and magnetism and is integral to many aspects of our modern world. Faraday's Law and Lenz's Law underpin this phenomenon, governing the induced voltage and current when magnetic fields change. The applications of electromagnetic induction range from electric generators and transformers to the study of eddy currents, mutual in influence and self-inductance. By understanding these principles, we can continue to innovate and develop new technologies to improve our daily lives and advance our understanding of the world.

 

Induction Heating

Electromagnetic induction heating is another practical application that relies on electromagnetic induction. This technology utilizes eddy currents to heat conductive materials, such as metals. By placing a conductive material within a rapidly changing magnetic field, eddy currents are generated within the material, producing heat due to their resistance. This heating method has been employed in various industrial processes, including metal hardening, welding, and cooking.

Wireless charging is an emerging technology that utilizes electromagnetic induction to transfer energy between two coils. When an electric current flows through the primary coil, it generates a magnetic field, which induces a voltage in the secondary coil, providing power to the device. This technology has seen increasing adoption in recent years, particularly for charging electric vehicles and smartphones, offering convenience and reduced dependence on cords and cables.

 

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Voltage Drop Explained

Voltage drop occurs when electrical voltage decreases as current flows through a conductor. It can cause poor equipment performance, energy loss, and overheating. Discover how selecting the proper wire size and material can help minimize voltage drop in electrical systems.

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What is Voltage Drop?

Voltage drop (VD) is a common issue in electrical systems where the voltage (V) at the end of a circuit is lower than at the beginning due to resistance in the wiring.

✅ A decrease in V along a wire or circuit due to resistance or impedance

✅ Leads to reduced equipment performance and higher energy consumption

✅ Prevented by proper wire sizing, shorter runs, and low-resistance materials

 

Voltage Drop Definition

Voltage drop can lead to inefficient equipment operation or even failure. Solving electrical potential drop involves ensuring proper wire sizing, minimizing long-distance wiring runs, and using materials with lower resistance. Calculating the voltage drop for specific circuits and adjusting the installation accordingly helps maintain optimal performance and prevent power loss.

Any length or size of wires will have some resistance, and running a current through this dc resistance will cause the voltage to drop. As the length of the cable increases, so does its resistance and reactance increase in proportion. Hence, circuit V drop is particularly a problem with long cable runs, for example, in larger buildings or on larger properties such as farms. This technique is often used when properly sizing conductors in any single-phase, line-to-line electrical circuit. This can be measured with a voltage drop calculator.

Electrical cables have a carrying capacity of current that always presents inherent resistance, or impedance, to the flow of current. Voltage drop is measured as the amount of loss which occurs through all or part of a circuit due to what is called cable "impedance" in volts.

Too much resistance in wires, otherwise known as " excessive voltage drop ", in a cable's cross-sectional area can cause lights to flicker or burn dimly, heaters to heat poorly, and motors to run hotter than normal and burn out. This condition causes the load to work harder with less energy, pushing the current.

 

Voltage Drop per 100 Feet of Copper Wire (Single Phase, 60 Hz, 75°C, 120V Circuit)

(Values are approximate, in volts, for a 2% limit)

Wire Size (AWG) Max Current (Amps) Max Distance (Feet) Voltage Drop (at max distance)
14 15 50 2.4 V
12 20 60 2.4 V
10 30 80 2.4 V
8 40 100 2.4 V
6 55 130 2.4 V
4 70 160 2.4 V
2 95 200 2.4 V
1/0 125 250 2.4 V

 

Key Takeaways

  • Larger wires (lower AWG numbers) carry more current with less VD.

  • Longer distances require thicker wires to stay within VD limits.

  • A 2% VD is often used as a conservative design target in electrical systems.

 

How is this solved?

To decrease the voltage drop in a circuit, you need to increase the size (cross-section) of your conductors – this is done to lower the overall resistance of the cable length. Certainly, larger copper or aluminum cable sizes increase the cost, so it’s essential to calculate the voltage drop and determine the optimum wire size that will reduce voltage drop to safe levels while remaining cost-effective.

 

How do you calculate voltage drop?

Voltage drop refers to the loss of electricity that occurs when current flows through a resistance. The greater the resistance, the greater the voltage drop. To check the voltage drop, use a voltmeter connected between the points where the voltage drop is to be measured. In DC circuits and AC resistive circuits, the total of all the voltage drops across series-connected loads should add up to the V applied to the circuit (Figure 1).


 

Fig. 1. Measuring voltage drops across loads

Read our companion article Voltage Drop Calculator. For more information, see our article: Voltage Drop Formula.

Each load device must receive its rated power to operate properly. If not enough is available, the device will not operate as it should. You should always be certain that the V you are going to measure does not exceed the range of the voltmeter. This may be difficult if the V is unknown. If such is the case, you should always start with the highest range. Attempting to measure a V higher than the voltmeter can handle may cause damage to the voltmeter. At times you may be required to measure a V from a specific point in the circuit to ground or a common reference point (Figure 8-15). To do this, first connect the black common test probe of the voltmeter to the circuit ground or common. Then connect the red test probe to whatever point in the circuit you want to measure.

To accurately calculate the drop for a given cable size, length, and current, you need to accurately know the resistance of the type of cable you’re using. However, AS3000 outlines a simplified method that can be used.

The table below is taken from AS3000 electrical code, which specifies ‘Amps per %Vd‘ (amps per percentage VD) for each cable size.  To calculate the dop for a circuit as a percentage, multiply the current (amps) by the cable length (metres); then divide this Ohm number by the value in the table.

For example, a 30m run of 6 mm² cable carrying 3-phase 32A will result in a 1.5% drop: 32A × 30m = 960A / 615 = 1.5%.

Learn more about real-world voltage drop issues on our Voltage Dropping in Power Quality page.

 

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Sources of Electricity Explained

Sources of electricity include fossil fuels, nuclear power, and renewable energy like solar, wind, and hydro. These energy sources provide reliable electricity generation, powering homes, industries, and grids while shaping modern energy systems and sustainability goals.

 

What are the Sources of Electricity?

Sources of electricity are the various energy systems used to generate electrical power, ranging from conventional fuels to renewable technologies.

✅ Include fossil fuels, nuclear power, and renewable energy

✅ Used in electricity generation across all sectors

✅ Impact cost, sustainability, and environmental footprint

In the modern world, electricity plays a crucial role in our daily lives. As a result, it has become an essential commodity, from powering our homes to running industries. But have you ever wondered where it comes from? Electric power can be generated from various sources with unique characteristics, benefits, and drawbacks. In this article, we'll delve into the main sources of electric power generation and discuss their environmental impacts, costs, and efficiency. Renewable sources, such as hydro, solar, and wind, contrast with alternative electricity options that aim to reduce dependence on fossil fuels.

The primary sources of electric power used to produce electric power can be broadly categorized into renewable and non-renewable resources. Renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, hydroelectric, geothermal, and biomass, are replenished naturally and have a lower environmental impact than non-renewable sources. Non-renewable energy sources include fossil fuels such as coal, natural gas, and oil, as well as nuclear energy. These resources are finite, and their extraction and utilization contribute to environmental issues like air pollution and climate change. Hydroelectric dams, wind turbines, and solar farms all contribute to global electricity generation, reducing reliance on non-renewable sources.

According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration, global electricity production relies on a mix of renewable and non-renewable sources. While traditional thermal power plants, fueled by coal, natural gas, and nuclear energy, remain central to electricity generation, the rapid growth of solar photovoltaics is transforming how we create and consume electricity. Many nations are investing heavily in utility-scale electricity projects, from massive solar farms to offshore wind facilities, to meet rising demand while reducing emissions. These shifts illustrate how diverse technologies collectively shape the future of reliable and sustainable power.

 

Fossil Fuels: The Traditional Backbone

Fossil fuels remain the dominant source of electricity worldwide. In 2023, they accounted for roughly 61% of global power generation. In the U.S., about 60% of electric power still comes from coal, natural gas, and oil. These fuels are burned to produce heat, which converts water into steam that drives turbines to generate electric power.

While fossil fuels offer reliability and established infrastructure, they release large amounts of greenhouse gases, contributing significantly to air pollution and climate change.

 

Nuclear Energy: Low Carbon but Controversial

Nuclear energy provides approximately 9% of the world's electric power and nearly 19% in the United States. It works by splitting atoms (nuclear fission) to release energy that turns water into steam, which then drives turbines.

Nuclear power is highly efficient and emits no carbon during operation. However, it poses concerns regarding radioactive waste, high capital costs, and the potential for catastrophic failures.

 

Renewable Energy: The Fastest-Growing Sector

Renewable energy sources are expanding rapidly due to technological advances and falling costs. In 2023, they accounted for approximately 30% of global electric power, with wind and solar energy experiencing the fastest growth. Among renewables, Geothermal Electricity harnesses Earth’s internal heat to produce reliable baseload power even in regions with limited solar or wind potential.

 

Solar Power

Solar energy converts sunlight into electric power using photovoltaic cells, also known as photovoltaic panels. It's scalable, from rooftop systems to massive solar farms, and has seen significant cost reductions over the past decade.

 

Wind Power

Wind turbines capture kinetic energy from the wind to generate electric power. Wind farms are increasingly common in the U.S., Europe, and China. Like solar energy, wind energy is intermittent, but storage technology is continually improving.

 

Hydroelectric Power

Hydroelectricity uses flowing water to turn turbines. It's the most established renewable source and provides reliable base-load power. However, large dams can disrupt ecosystems and displace communities. Hydroelectricity stands out as a mature and stable form of renewable generation, as detailed on our Hydroelectricity page.

 

Geothermal and Biomass

Geothermal taps into Earth’s internal heat, while biomass burns organic material. While smaller in scale, both contribute to energy diversity and localized solutions. Geothermal power generation complements solar, wind, and hydroelectric sources by offering a steady, round-the-clock output, as explained in our detailed guide on Geothermal Electricity.

 

Comparing Sources of Electricity

Source Global Share (2023) U.S. Share (2023) Key Advantages Key Drawbacks
Fossil Fuels ~61% ~60% Reliable, established infrastructure High emissions, non-renewable
Nuclear ~9% ~19% Low carbon, high efficiency Radioactive waste, high cost
Renewables ~30% ~21% Clean, sustainable, fast-growing Intermittent, resource/location dependent

 

The diverse world of electric power choices offers a range of technologies that can help meet the growing global demand for energy. By understanding the characteristics, environmental impacts, costs, and efficiencies of these sources, we can make informed decisions about transitioning to cleaner, more sustainable energy systems. As renewable energy technologies continue to advance and energy storage solutions mature, the future of electric power generation is likely to be increasingly dominated by clean, sustainable sources that reduce our impact on the planet and provide reliable power for future generations.

 

Environmental Impact and Efficiency

The environmental effects of each source vary significantly:

  • Coal and oil are the dirtiest, producing the most CO2 and pollutants.

  • Natural gas emits less CO2 but still contributes to climate change.

  • Nuclear has a low operational footprint but long-term waste issues.

  • Solar and wind energy produce no emissions during use, although manufacturing has some environmental impact.

 

Efficiency also differs:

  • Natural gas plants can achieve thermal efficiencies exceeding 60%.

  • Nuclear reactors are highly efficient, but they are slow to build.

  • Coal is among the least efficient.

  • Renewables vary based on technology and location.

 

Cost Considerations

Costs are influenced by technology, fuel, geography, and infrastructure:

  • Solar and wind costs have dropped dramatically, making them competitive with fossil fuels.

  • Nuclear has high upfront costs but low operating costs.

  • Fossil fuels fluctuate in response to changes in market supply and demand.

 

Future Trends in Power Generation

The energy sector is moving toward decarbonization. Key trends include:

  • Growth in solar and wind capacity

  • Advances in energy storage systems

  • Development of smart grids and microgrids

  • Investment in fusion energy research

Many countries are setting net-zero goals, aiming for cleaner and more sustainable electricity systems.

Electric power can be generated from various sources, each with its trade-offs in terms of cost, efficiency, and environmental impact. While fossil fuels still dominate, the momentum is clearly shifting toward renewable energy sources. A diversified energy mix, supported by smart technologies and forward-looking policies, will power the sustainable future. To understand how energy sources are converted into power, refer to our 'Generate Electricity' article, which describes the entire process from fuel or resource to grid delivery.

Understanding the strengths and weaknesses of each source helps shape a more resilient, efficient, and eco-friendly power generation landscape. Whether from fossil fuels, nuclear, or renewables, every source of electricity must connect to the electricity grid to deliver power where it is needed.

 

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